Research Proposal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 3

Research Proposal - Essay Example In the event masculinity is threatened with the men’s conveyed feelings of shame, hostility and guilty: hence men tend to overcompensate to defend masculinity. This paper will talk about masculinity in men; what role masculinity plays in dealing with grief, violence and morality in the society. It is important to understand why men treasure masculinity so much. This paper will review four journals in a bid to understand masculinity in men and how the society takes it. Masculinity can be portrayed in a number of ways, the first dealing with grief, the second – with morality, the third - with violence and last but not least one - acting or role playing. Lee (2002) states that culture and its gadgets all work hand in hand to sustain and set out various rules that men are expected to perform. Ideas of masculinity are socially constructed set of rules that oversee male manners or behavior so that male emotions are not authorized to approve male sex roles. This masculinity that men apply has been sanctioned by the culture and males are required to perform them. Men have been accustomed to thinking that some activities are masculine or not thus objectionable. According to Lee (2002), â€Å"men could have emotions as long as they were they are socially useful.† (p.4) An example of masculinity in the nineteenth century is the public man – a money maker, who desired to or focused on achieving success and had to give his all even his sexuality. Lee (2002) suggested that â€Å"draining one’s bodily fluid via masturbation or self-abuse threatened masculinity.† (p.4) Manhood was understood from these beliefs and, th e author goes on to say that man was or is to direct his sexual passion to his marriage, art and work. 2. Alilunas, P. (2009). Male masculinity as the celebration of failure: The frat pack, women and the trauma of victimization in the â€Å"dude flick†.Retrieved: 3 Nov. 2012. From:

Compare and discuss contrast Essay Example for Free

Compare and discuss contrast Essay 1. Launched non-complete version of their website. Consumers get very annoyed when the e-commerce website they are trying to shop does not work. In software related commerce, one of the biggest complaints from users is insufficient testing for bugs before marketing to the public. 2. Annoying pop-up windows and Cumbersome Interface The multiple pop-ups further slowed down user download times and took away the sense of user control. When making a purchase most consumers prefer to make their own decision without pressure from pushy salesmen. From personal experience, most consumers prefer to seek out information as needed instead of having it pop up in another window. 3. Miss Boo, Shopping Assistant This virtual shopping assistant seemed crazy. Why did Miss Boo say Tie me up, tie me down in a shoe that looks like its been attacked? This irrational verbiage symbolized the dementia in design that was systemic in the website. When the company icon/mascot says irrational things it reduces consumer confidence in the products and services provided in the website. 4. Usability In Boo.com case, there was a big disconnection between the bandwidth required to run the website multimedia and actual bandwidth of average consumers. Consumers simply did not have the bandwidth to shop at Boo. com, or the right program (Macromedia Flash) to load the images. People were not ready for the excessive graphics, movies, audio, and video. * Unable to alter customer buying behavior Boo. com was unable to attract customers in large numbers, nor was it able to generate a sufficient level of repeat customer from the small number of clients that did use its services. Few people are happy to buy clothes without first trying them on, which represented a fundamental problem for Boo. D. What could Boo. com have done differently that might made it a success? * Technology First Solutions The technology that was supposed to power Boo. com did not work. As with everything else, the concept for its Web site was extraordinarily ambitious, with complex global distribution and multiple currencies and dazzling interactive features. And it was to have been built from scratch, something the technology team came to realize was difficult, if not impossible. Management spending was unprecedented for a dot. com. By the time the site was supposed to go live in May 1999, Boo. com had run up a $600,000 bill from Hill Knowlton, the companys public relations firm, mostly for setting up lunches with fashion editors for the founders. Hill Knowlton threatened to stop working for Boo. com because the firm was not paid on time. Ms. Leander, a former Elite model who was also Boo. coms marketing chief, hired Roman Coppola, Francis Ford Coppolas son, to direct the companys TV ads, featuring nerdy young people in urban chic clothing, which were part of a $42 million campaign for the big introduction. That included $25 million worth of advertising in magazines, newspapers, and billboards. Many employees said they received a mobile phone, a Palm hand-held device and an American Express card. Salaries were high for a dot-com on the make. III. Compare and discuss contrast between Staples. com Boo. com Usability It has been obvious from day one on the Web that what people want is fast downloading, information rich websites. Speed is a critical factor that drives Web usage. When people come to a website they are invariably looking for information. They dont want to hang around. They dont want to be left waiting. The best website is the one that gets them the right content fastest. In general, usability was a big issue for Boo. Consumers did not have the bandwidth to shop at Boo. com, or the right program (Macromedia Flash) to load the images. During then, the common folk were not ready for the excessive graphics, movies, audio, and video. Also, the annoyance of Miss Boo, their online helper, also detracted people from shopping at Boo. com. As more problems arose, Boo forgot about their customers. Staples. com has not committed the same mistake. It has built a portal based on what customer wants, content rich and fast downloading. This was clearly indicated by Staples. com portal recent won of a prestigious award for best business-to-business site from MIMC, the Massachusetts Interactive Media Council. (www. boston. internet. com/news/article. php/494001).   Convenience Feedback from customer commented that Boo web site was very complicated to navigate through, which meant that it was very difficult to make comparisons between the different brands that were stocked. According to Mori (2000) the ability to find product information and to compare prices is a very attractive feature for Internet shoppers. The Staples. com web site on the other hand has been designed for usability, reduced clicks, time-saving navigational tools, and personalized time-saving features for quick access. * Interaction Interaction is the means of relationship-building with individual customers by providing timely pre-sales information and excellent after-sales support. Boo. com has no strategy of building up customer relationship. The company suffered from very low rates of customer retention. Staples. com offers tremendous online resources that provide personalized, right time customer information. When you place an order, Staples encourages you to sign up for e-mail reminders, which will be sent to you BEFORE you run out. Once you receive the e-mail you can access Staples. com directly, buy what you need and your new supplies will be on their way. Product matchmaker- products are listed specific to the customer personal equipment. Plus, order history and a favorite shopping basket will keep track of items that are continuously purchased for fast checkout! This strategy clearly scored a big plus in term of building good relationship with their customer. * Brand Image For any new start up, making itself known is a big challenge. In Boo. com case, it spent relentlessly to create it brand image. The management committed $25 million to an advertising budget, a huge sum for a start-up. The company chose to advertise in expensive but trendy fashion magazines such as Vanity Fair as well as on cable television and the Internet. Staples. com has an easier path for it inherited the brand name from its parent company Staples Inc. * Vision or Strategy The creators Boo. com had a great vision, but failed to support that with a good strategy. First, the company had failed to consider potential competition from its main competitors who have strong brand name such as Lands End, and Nordstrom. Second, it is evident that little market research was done as Boo. com strived to sell a good (clothing) that was hard to sell on the Internet. As for most shoppers, they prefer to touch, feel, and try on clothes before buying it. Third, they failed to consider their resources as they launched their websites simultaneously in several countries. Staples. com has both a vision and good strategy. It has established a vision of creating outstanding customer service through a great Web experience. With this vision, it laid the strategy foundation that the key to online success and increased market share was to make its e-commerce site as usable as possible. Staples wanted the site to be customer-driven: to support customer needs in an easy-to-use, intuitive way. Conclusion There would be various reasons for failure in EC such as lack of funding, incorrect revenue model, and so much more, but typically, no business model should ever ignore the golden rule customer satisfaction. Strategic planning clarifies what an EC project should do or focus on with respect to the companys mission and the given business environment. To start or to survive companies must learn from the lesson of others failure and successful stories. Appendix A: Critical Success factors (Extract from: http://www. e-bc. ca/) Critical Success Factor Definition Competitive Advantage 1. Convenience The usability of the web site for the purpose for which it was designed: for example, to assist, buying or selling, to find information, to track a process. Users find it easy to carry out the process, so they are more likely to use the site and return to it. 2. Brand Image The ability to build up a brand name for the e-commerce business, and its products and services, using online and offline brand-building techniques. The more awareness a business can generate for its site, the greater the volume of traffic and potential for sales. 3. Interaction The means of relationship-building with individual customers by providing timely pre-sales information and excellent after-sales support. The business builds up a critical mass of loyal customers. Reference: 1. e-business infrastructure: Lessons from failure, Computer Finance, Dec 2000, p11 2. Mack, Ann M. , Stayin Alive, Adweek Eastern Edition, 06/12/2000, Vol. 41 Issue 24, p68 3. Turban, Efraim, King, David. , Lee. , Warkentin, Merill. , Chung, H. Michael. (2002) Electronic Commerce 2002: A Mangerial Perspective, Prentice Hall.  http://www.hostelworld.com/

Miles Franklins My Brilliant Career Essay -- Franklin My Brilliant Ca

Miles Franklin's My Brilliant Career Topic: Give a detailed analysis of a key scene or passage from "My Brilliant Career" by Miles Franklin. The focus and essence of My Brilliant Career by Miles Franklin is centred on the relationships and interactions of Sybylla Melvyn (the key character of the novel), towards other characters. The ways in which she reacts to different people and why she reacts in a particular manner, are perhaps more crucial and intriguing to the reader, than any distinct event throughout the novel.   Sybylla's logic and thinking about herself, others and life, have been moulded by her very influential relationships with her mother and father.   Her view on life and the roles of men and women has also been influenced by literature she has read.   Moreover, her affinity with her parents in childhood and as a young woman has plainly made its mark on her further relationships, especially with men. The most prominent male relationship Sybylla encounters is with her lover, Harold Beecham.   Sybylla's relationship with Harold as described in Chapter 20 illustrates the influences of her parents and literature.   In   Chapter 20, Sybylla hits Harold across the face with a riding whip, when he tries to kiss her.   Yet Harold Beecham appears to be the perfect figure and the perfect man and indeed, Sybylla loves him, although she does not like to admit this.   For example, her "train of thought was interrupted by our host, who appeared in the doorway, clad from sole to neck in white" (Franklin 137).   He is her knight in shining amour, but even so she strikes him.   To Sybylla, Harold always appears somewhat 'forbidden'.   Perhaps subconsciously, he is the materialised embodiment of her father, Richard Melvyn.   In her e... ...y saying "Is this not rather sudden?   You have given me no intimation of your intentions" (Franklin 140).   Perhaps still disturbed by his manner, this is partly the reason why she hits Harold afterwards. Sybylla Melvyn is simply a confused adolescent, with all the problems and feelings of a young woman growing up.   She has a large amount of emotional turmoil in her mind and is doing what she can to adjust to her ever changing environment.   Sybylla is paranoid and neurotic and her values, beliefs and ideals have been easily influenced by her childhood relationship with her parents.   As a consequence, her actions reflect these influences, which are deeply etched in her mind.   By examining her relationship with Harold Beecham we are able to understand that her attitude towards his affections are a result of both her parents influence and her reading material.  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  

SPSS Computer Project

Blue Marketing research is conducting an experiment with the patients of the Midwest University Medical Hospital. The goal of this experiment is to find out if the residents of Midwest University Medical Hospital are happy with their service, and to judge whether or not the current state of customer service is affecting the amount of residents that reside at the hospital. The experiment will consist of a survey questionnaire administered to a random assortment of patients within the hospital. The patients will be questioned about the overall quality of the hospital, the intention to return and see the same doctor, the intention to recommend friends and family, the intention to compliment management, the intention to complain about service, the intention to seek other health care services, and the intention to not use any provider. The respondents were asked to rate the likelihood of each future behavior based on a 1-7 scale, 1 being â€Å"would not†, 7 being â€Å"definitely would†. A summary of the data collected is show below.Windows 7 Check Your Understanding From this summary of data we are able to make recommendations for the hospital to improve quality and service. Summary of Findings Overall quality is rated as poor. Most people intend to return to the same doctor. Most people intend to recommend this hospital to family and friends and few will complain to them. Many people intend to complain to management, but few to hospital management. Very few intend to complain to local medical society. Very few intend to seek similar care elsewhere. Few intend not to use any provider. About half discussed their visit, afterwards. Most aspects of perceived service were about neutral. There was an outlier in the perceived service section: the customers were clearly unhappy with the operating hours. Difference between male and female responses After collecting all of the surveys, we have found that both men and women rate the overall quality about the same. Both men and women are likely to return, and recommend family and friends. We found that women are more likely to compliment management, men complain to hospital management, and men were more likely to complain to hospital management. Women are more likely to seek help elsewhere, and men are more likely to use to healthcare at all. Both genders thought that the facilities were appealing, and women thought that the equipment was up to date more than men. Women felt that the employees were better dressed, more than men. Women rated the in keeping with service better than men, along with promise and do it. More women thought that the provider was sympathetic, and men were more likely to believe that the hospital was dependable. Men were happier with the time in which services were held compared to the time they were promised, and women were happier with the way records were kept. Men were more likely to be satisfied with when the service was provided, were also more likely to expect prompt service, and also were more likely to believe that employees were helpful. Men were more likely to select that employees were too busy, both groups believed that they could trust employee’s, and both groups felt safe. More women thought that employees were polite, and that they had organizational support. More women believed that they had individual attention compared to men, and also believed that employee’s knew their needs. Women thought that the doctors had their best interest at heart compared to women, and women thought that the operating hours were acceptable, while men did not. Recommendations The data from this study shows several opportunities for improvement in the quality of the service they provide. The overall quality of the hospital was rated very low. This is a major opportunity for improvement. This is a broad general view of the hospital by the patients this should improve as all of the smaller issues get improved. Intent to complain to management- There is room for improvement in almost all of the perceived service areas. The appealing facilities question was about neutral. Improving the appearance of the facility and making sure it is constantly clan would improvement customer perceptions of the quality of the hospital. Maybe it’s time to do some renovations. The respondents were about neutral to equipment being up to date. This isn’t that bad, but it would still be good to have newer equipment and would raise this section.

Impact of Organizational Support for Career Development

Career Development International Emerald Article: The impact of organisational support for career development on career satisfaction Belinda Renee Barnett, Lisa Bradley Article information: To cite this document: Belinda Renee Barnett, Lisa Bradley, (2007),†The impact of organisational support for career development on career satisfaction†, Career Development International, Vol. 12 Iss: 7 pp. 617 – 636 Permanent link to this document: http://dx. doi. org/10. 108/13620430710834396 Downloaded on: 18-09-2012 References: This document contains references to 40 other documents Citations: This document has been cited by 17 other documents To copy this document: [email  protected] com This document has been downloaded 7990 times since 2007. * Users who downloaded this Article also downloaded: * Jyotsna Bhatnagar, (2007),†Talent management strategy of employee engagement in Indian ITES employees: key to retention†, Employee Relations, Vol. 29 Iss: 6 pp. 640 à ¢â‚¬â€œ 663 http://dx. doi. org/10. 1108/01425450710826122 Ans De Vos, Koen Dewettinck, Dirk Buyens, (2008),†To move or not to move? The relationship between career management and preferred career moves†, Employee Relations, Vol. 30 Iss: 2 pp. 156 – 175 http://dx. doi. org/10. 1108/01425450810843348 Marilyn Clarke, Margaret Patrickson, (2008),†The new covenant of employability†, Employee Relations, Vol. 30 Iss: 2 pp. 121 – 141 http://dx. doi. org/10. 1108/01425450810843320 Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by UNIVERSITY OF GUJRAT For Authors: If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service.Information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please visit www. emeraldinsight. com/authors for more information. About Emerald www. emeraldinsight. com With over forty years' experi ence, Emerald Group Publishing is a leading independent publisher of global research with impact in business, society, public policy and education. In total, Emerald publishes over 275 journals and more than 130 book series, as well as an extensive range of online products and services. Emerald is both COUNTER 3 and TRANSFER compliant.The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation. *Related content and download information correct at time of download. The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www. emeraldinsight. com/1362-0436. htm The impact of organisational support for career development on career satisfaction Belinda Renee Barnett Queensland Rail, Sandgate, Australia, and Support for career development 617 Received December 2006 Revised July 2007 Accepted August 2007Lisa Bradley School of Management, Queensland University of Technology , Brisbane, Australia Abstract Purpose – The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between organisational support for career development (OSCD) and employees’ career satisfaction. Based on an extended model of social cognitive career theory (SCCT) and an integrative model of proactive behaviours, the study proposed that career management behaviours would mediate the relationship between OSCD and career satisfaction, and between proactive personality and career satisfaction.Design/methodology/approach – Public and private sector employees (N ? 90) participating in career development activities completed a survey regarding their proactivity, OSCD, career management behaviours and career satisfaction. Findings – OSCD, proactive personality and career management behaviours were all positively related to career satisfaction and career management behaviours mediated the relationship between proactive personality and career satisfaction. There wa s no support for the career management behaviours mediating between OSCD and career satisfaction.Research limitations/implications – This study provided support for the extended SCCT model by testing a subset of its proposed relationships using a cross-sectional approach. The sample surveyed (employees participating in career development activities) and the large proportion of full-time employees, may limit the generalisability of the ? ndings. Future longitudinal research could more fully test the relationships proposed by the extended SCCT model and include a greater representation of part-time and casual employees. Practical implications – The results suggest that there are bene? s for organisations and individuals investing in career development.. First, from an organisational perspective, investing in OSCD may enhance employees’ career satisfaction. Second, employees may enhance their own career satisfaction by participating in career management behaviours. Originality/value – This study integrated the predictions of two models (an extension of SCCT and a model of proactive behaviours) to test the in? uence of environmental (OSCD) and individual difference (proactive personality) variables on career satisfaction. Exploring how organisational and individual variables together in? ence career satisfaction provides a more balanced approach to theoretical development. Keywords Career satisfaction, Human resource management, Employee development, Career management Paper type Research paper Changes in the economic, technological and business environment during the last two decades have signi? cantly impacted people’s career attitudes and experiences (Hall, 2002; Pinnington and Lafferty, 2003). These environmental changes have contributed to the Career Development International Vol. 12 No. 7, 2007 pp. 617-636 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1362-0436 DOI 10. 1108/13620430710834396CDI 12,7 618 establishment of a new psycholog ical contract: the reciprocal obligations held by employees and employers (Hall, 2002). The predominance of organisational restructuring, de-layering and downsizing has contributed to a more ? exible or â€Å"boundaryless† career environment with expectations that individuals will self-manage their careers, rather than rely on organisational direction (Arthur et al. , 2005; Kossek et al. , 1998). Concurrently, tight labour markets in Australia and other developed countries challenge organisations in attracting, motivating and retaining employees.Australia is currently experiencing record low unemployment rates with labour shortages across many industries, including the trades, engineering and knowledge sectors. In this competitive environment, where it is increasingly dif? cult and costly to attract employees with the necessary skills, organisations need to convince employees that their organisation provides more opportunities, challenges and rewards than their competitors. T his aim can be particularly challenging when the traditional rewards offered as part of the old psychological contract, such as structured career paths and job stability, are more dif? ult for organisations to provide due to the more dynamic environment in which many organisations now operate. Therefore, organisations are seeking creative ways to address this attraction, motivation and retention challenge (Erdogan et al. , 2004; Heslin, 2005). One way that organisations may meet this challenge is to support employees to develop their own careers and increase their career satisfaction. This approach is consistent with the recommendation that organisations perform a new supportive, rather than directive, role in enabling their employees’ career success (Baruch, 2006).This study proposes that organisations can adopt strategies to enhance employees’ career satisfaction and so potentially increase the organisations’ ability to attract and retain these employees. Whil e one focus of this study is on the role that organisational support can play in employees’ career satisfaction, it is important to also consider the role that individuals play in their own career success, particularly given the trend towards more individualistic career management in the last few decades (Baruch, 2006).Exploring the impact that organisational and individual difference variables have on career satisfaction will result in a more comprehensive understanding of these relationships and also offers the opportunity to merge the two, often distinct perspectives provided by (worker-focused) vocational psychology and (employer focused) organisational psychology (Lent and Brown, 2006). An extended model of Social cognitive career theory (SCCT) has recently been proposed which predicts how contextual and individual personality, cognitive and behavioural variables predict vocational satisfaction (Lent, 2004, 2005; Lent and Brown, 2006).To date, versions of this extended m odel have only examined the academic satisfaction of college students (Lent et al. , 2005) and there is a strong need for further study with employed workers (Lent and Brown, 2006). Therefore, this study will explore the relationship between an environmental support variable, organisational support for career development (OSCD) and employee career satisfaction.In addition, a mediating relationship proposed by SCCT, via participation in goal directed activities (individual career management behaviours) will be explored. Since this recently extended model of SCCT emphasises an approach to unify personality and environmental perspectives, previous studies of university students tested how extraversion and positive affect ? t the model (Lent et al. , 2005). The current study builds on past research by exploring how another important personality variable (proactive personality) impacts career satisfaction.By incorporating the predictions of the model of proactive behaviours (Crant, 2000) , and the extended SCCT model (Lent and Brown, 2006), this study will also explore whether career management behaviours mediate the relationship between proactive personality and career satisfaction. Greater understanding about the mediating mechanisms by which environmental and personality variables impact career satisfaction will contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of career satisfaction and support the development and testing of the extended SCCT model.Organisational career management is a risk management process (Baruch, 2006). Therefore, examining the relative contribution that OSCD makes to employee career satisfaction can assist organisations in determining whether investment in supporting employee career development will derive adequate bene? ts and enable organisations to better design career development strategies to achieve desired outcomes. From an employee perspective, understanding how personality, behavioural and environmental factors function together ma y offer the opportunity to assist people to become as satis? d with their careers as nature and environmental factors support (Lent and Brown, 2006). Figure 1 presents a social cognitive model aimed at understanding vocational and educational satisfaction (Lent and Brown, 2006). The model predicts paths by which social cognitive variables (e. g. self-ef? cacy, goals) function jointly with personality and environmental variables to impact work satisfaction (Lent and Brown, 2006). The model extends upon SCCT, which was originally developed to explain interest development, choice and performance in career and educational domains (Lent et al. , 1994).Exploration of this recently developed model of SCCT can contribute to the literature by helping to achieve integration on two levels (Lent and Brown, 2006). These levels of contribution will be described next. Support for career development 619 Figure 1. A process model of work satisfaction that highlights theorized interrelations among pe rsonality, cognitive, behavioural and environmental variables CDI 12,7 620 The ? rst way that this model of SCCT can contribute to the literature is to help unify the often disparate perspectives of organisational and vocational psychology (Lent and Brown, 2006).While organisational and vocational psychology researchers focus on work satisfaction, it is often with different perspectives. For example, vocational psychology tends to be clearly focused on the individual and work satisfaction is treated as an end in itself, or as a component of work adjustment (Lent and Brown, 2006; Russell, 1991). Organisational psychology, alternatively, tends to focus more on the organisational consequences of work satisfaction, such as productivity, engagement and turnover (Lent and Brown, 2006).These differing perspectives have led to largely distinct literatures, with concerns that researchers will reinvent areas of inquiry if they do not draw together learning from multiple disciplines (Baruch, 2 006; Lent and Brown, 2006; Russell, 1991) Therefore, exploring this extended SCCT model can contribute to the literature by developing closer links between vocational and organisational psychology perspectives on work satisfaction (Lent and Brown, 2006).Exploring this SCCT model can also contribute to building a more comprehensive understanding of work satisfaction by considering how cognitive, behavioural, personality and environmental factors jointly impact work satisfaction (Lent and Brown, 2006). By incorporating frequently studied correlates of work satisfaction into a few, broader conceptual categories, this extended model of SCCT attempts to balance comprehensiveness and simplicity in explaining the multiple in? uences on work satisfaction.While the bivariate relations contained in this model have received study, this extended model of SCCT provides a theoretical logic for predicting how these variables may function together. Since study of the extended SCCT model has focused on student samples to date (Lent et al. , 2005), this current study will also contribute to the literature by exploring how a subset of the relationships proposed by this SCCT model applies to employed workers, as recommended by Lent and Brown (2006).This study also incorporates theoretical predictions from the model of proactive behaviours (Crant, 2000) from the management literature. This model considers the antecedents (individual differences, such as proactive personality, and contextual factors, such as OSCD) and consequences (such as career success) of both general and context-speci? c proactive behaviours (Crant, 2000). The model shares similarities with SCCT, in its perspective that employees take an active role in their careers: they initiate behaviours and create favourable situations to achieve personal goals and career success (Crant, 2000).Similar to the predictions of SCCT (Lent, 2005), the model proposes that people are more likely to take actions to achieve their go als if they have access to environmental (organisational) support and resources relevant to the pursuit of these goals. Integrating the predictions from the psychological and managerial literature also builds on the recommendations of (Baruch, 2006) who urged researchers to analyse careers from a broad, multi-disciplined approach, rather than from a limited, single discipline perspective. The key elements of the model proposed in this study and its predicted pathways will be described next.The model outlined in Figure 2 integrates some of the predictions of the extended SCCT model (Lent and Brown, 2006) and the proactive behaviour model when applied to the career domain (Crant, 2000). The key classes of variables that comprise this model include: career satisfaction; OSCD – organisational support for career development; proactive personality; and career management behaviours. Support for career development 621 Figure 2. Integrated model of proactive behaviours Key model eleme nts Career satisfaction (subjective career success) While traditionally a career was considered to be con? ed to professionals or those who advanced through organisational hierarchies, today the term â€Å"career† is more broadly applied and is commonly considered to be the lifelong sequence of role-related experiences of individuals (Hall, 2002). Building on this de? nition, â€Å"career success† can be de? ned as the â€Å"positive psychological and work-related outcomes accumulated as a result of one’s work experiences† (Seibert and Kraimer, 2001, p. 2). Distinction has been made between objective and subjective indicators of career success.Objective career success refers to the work experience outcomes, such as status, promotions and salary, that are objectively observable (Seibert and Kraimer, 2001). Traditional career research focused predominantly on objective measures of career success (Gattiker and Larwood, 1988). This focus was consistent with t he predominance of hierarchical organisations where employees’ career success was largely de? ned by promotion, rank and retention (Hall and Chandler, 2005). Measuring only objective criteria of career success, however, is de? ient, since people also value subjective outcomes such as development of new skills, work-life balance, challenge and purpose (Gattiker and Larwood, 1988; Heslin, 2005). Also, having achieved objective career success does not necessarily mean that people are satis? ed with their career (Hall, 2002). Lastly, some objective career success measures appear less relevant today, since organisations are more constrained in providing these opportunities (Heslin, 2005). One way to deal with the limitations of de? ning and measuring career success using objective criteria is to supplement these with measures of subjective career success.Subjective career success Subjective career success refers to individuals’ evaluation of their career progress, accomplis hments and anticipated outcomes, relative to their own goals and aspirations (Seibert and Kraimer, 2001). The change in focus to subjective career success, where the criterion for success is internal rather than external, is also consistent with the change in the career context where individuals are expected to self-manage their own careers rather than rely on organisational direction (Hall and Chandler, 2005; Hall and Mirvis, 1995). CDI 12,7 622Subjective career success has most often been operationalised as job satisfaction or career satisfaction (Erdogan et al. , 2004; Heslin, 2003; Ng et al. , 2005; Seibert and Kraimer, 2001). For example, in a recent review of career success studies, 20 out of a total of 49 studies operationalising subjective career success included measures of career satisfaction and 11 studies included measures for job satisfaction (Arthur et al. , 2005). Alternatively, a recent meta-analysis included only studies measuring career satisfaction to operationali se subjective career success (Ng et al. 2005). While there appears little general consensus about the relative merits of both measures, one perspective considers job satisfaction as an inadequate measure of career success, since subjective career success indicates satisfaction over a longer time frame and wider range of outcomes, such as sense of purpose and work-life balance, than job satisfaction (Heslin, 2005). We will use career satisfaction in this study. Career satisfaction measures the extent to which individuals believe their career progress is consistent with their own goals, values and preferences (Erdogan et al. 2004; Heslin, 2003; Seibert and Kraimer, 2001). Career satisfaction is often measured using the career satisfaction scale developed by Greenhaus et al. (1990). The vast majority of studies measuring career satisfaction use this scale. For example, of the 20 studies measuring career satisfaction in the review article referred to above, 14 studies used the career sa tisfaction scale (Arthur et al. , 2005) as we will do in the current research. Organisational support for career development Organisational support for areer development (OSCD) is also called â€Å"organisational career management† or â€Å"organisational sponsorship† and refers to the programs, processes and assistance provided by organisations to support and enhance their employees’ career success (Ng et al. , 2005; Orpen, 1994). The variable has been so named in this study to be consistent with the new supportive and enabling role proposed for organisations, rather than the traditional â€Å"command and control† approach taken in the past (Baruch, 2006).Referring to the extended SCCT model (Lent and Brown, 2006), OSCD belongs to a class of environmental support and resources variables that are speci? cally relevant to the pursuit of an individual’s career goals. OSCD comprises formal strategies (including career planning, training and assessment centres) and informal support such as providing mentoring, coaching and networking opportunities (Hall, 2002; London, 1988; Sturges, Guest, Conway, and Davey, 2002).Proactive personality Proactive personality or disposition is a stable individual difference construct that differentiates individuals based on the extent to which they take action to in? uence their environment. People with a proactive disposition tend to identify opportunities and act on them, persevering until meaningful change occurs in their environment (Crant, 2000). Proactive personality has demonstrated signi? cant positive relationships with career satisfaction and career management behaviours (Chiaburu et al. , 2006; Seibert et al. , 2001).Career management behaviours Career management behaviours are the actions that individuals take to achieve their career goals. These behaviours occur when individuals choose to initiate and intervene in their career situation in such a way that the individual acts in a desir ed direction, rather than responding passively to an imposed change (Crant, 2000). These behaviours are referred to alternatively as â€Å"career enhancing strategies† (Nabi, 2003), â€Å"context-speci? c proactive behaviours† (Crant, 2000) and â€Å"career goal-directed activities† (Lent, 2004).These behaviours include career exploration and planning, skills development, networking and promoting one’s achievements (Claes and Ruiz-Quintamilla, 1998; Kossek et al. , 1998; Nabi, 2000, 2003; Noe, 1996; Orpen, 1994). Pathways to career satisfaction The model outlined in Figure 2 proposes that contextual or environmental factors (such as OSCD) can in? uence the career satisfaction of employees by enhancing employees’ participation in career management behaviours. The model also proposes that stable individual differences, such as proactive personality, also in? ences career satisfaction via career management behaviours: people with a proactive dispositi on are more likely to engage in career management behaviours and be more satis? ed with their careers. Each of the paths proposed in the model will now be discussed. OSCD and career satisfaction A goal-speci? c environmental support and resource, such as OSCD, which provides social and material support for one’s personal goals, is likely to be a signi? cant predictor of career satisfaction (Lent and Brown, 2006).Conversely, the absence of such supports, or presence of contextual obstacles, is likely to impede goal progress and reduce satisfaction. This direct link to career satisfaction is predicted in the extended model of SCCT (Lent and Brown, 2006), and in this study’s model. To date, the evidence about the amount of variance in career satisfaction explained by OSCD is mixed (Ng et al. , 2005). This variability could partly be explained by the lack of empirical research testing theoretical models that uniquely predict subjective career success (Ng et al. 2005; Seibe rt et al. , 2001; Wayne et al. , 1999). For example, many studies examining the in? uence of OSCD on career success make similar predictions for both objective and subjective career success and control for variables that have a greater relationship with objective than with subjective career success. Lack of research which makes this distinction is of particular concern, since recent meta-analytic results suggest that there is a signi? cant difference between the predictors of objective and subjective career success (Ng et al. , 2005). Speci? ally, OSCD (including career sponsorship, supervisor support and training and development opportunities) and stable individual differences (such as proactive personality) were more strongly related to career satisfaction than to salary and promotion, measures of objective career success (Ng et al. , 2005). Support for the relationship between OSCD and career satisfaction was provided in two recent meta-analyses (Allen et al. , 2004; Ng et al. , 2005). Signi? cant positive relationships were found between mentoring and employee career satisfaction, with effect sizes ranging from 0. 1 to 0. 29 across up to ten studies (Allen et al. , 2004). Signi? cant effect sizes ranging from 0. 38 to 0. 46 were also found between OSCD (career sponsorship, supervisor support and training and development opportunities) and career satisfaction across up to 18 studies (Ng et al. , 2005). Analyses showed however, that the meta-analytic correlations between self-report measures were signi? cantly higher than correlations between self-report and objective measures, suggesting that percept-percept bias may be in? ating these correlations (Ng et al. 2005). Support for career development 623 CDI 12,7 624 Moderate support for a positive relationship between OSCD and employee career satisfaction was also found in two cross-sectional studies, comprising employees from private and public sector organisations in the United Kingdom and Israel (Orpen, 199 4; Pazy, 1988). In both studies, the items developed to represent characteristics of an effective organisational career management system loaded on three factors: career management policies, employee career development and career information.Together, theoretical predictions and empirical ? ndings lead to the study’s ? rst hypothesis: H1. OSCD will be positively related to career satisfaction. Career management behaviours and career satisfaction Participating in career management behaviours that are directed at achieving personally valued goals in the career domain are also expected to promote an individual’s career satisfaction and success (Crant, 2000; Lent and Brown, 2006).Pursuing personally relevant goals is a key way that people can contribute to their own wellbeing and enables the exercise of personal agency in career satisfaction. To the extent that an individual can set and work towards their own goals and perceive that they are making progress, they are capab le of promoting their own career satisfaction (Lent and Brown, 2006). Meta-analytic support also exists for the positive relationship between individual career management behaviours and career satisfaction (Ng et al. , 2005). Signi? cant effect sizes of 0. 33 and 0. 8 were found respectively for career planning and employee networking behaviour on career satisfaction across up to eight studies (Ng et al. , 2005). While most studies exploring these relationships are cross-sectional, there is also support for the positive impact of career management behaviours on subjective career success three years later (Wiese et al. , 2002). Wiese et al. (2002) surveyed 82 young German adults (age range 28 to 39 years) employed in a range of professions including physicians, lawyers, scientists, bank employees, hotel managers and police of? ers The study measured participants’ career management behaviours and their subjective success in the work domain (career satisfaction) at Time 1 and th ree years later. Participants’ career management behaviours at Time 1 predicted 14 per cent of the variance in participants’ career satisfaction three years later, after controlling for career satisfaction at Time 1. Career management behaviours at Time 1 however, did not predict signi? cant additional variance in career satisfaction when career management behaviours at Time 2 were also considered.The predictions of SCCT and the model of proactive behaviours, supported by these meta-analytic and longitudinal results, lead to the study’s second hypothesis: H2. Career management behaviours will be positively related to career satisfaction. Mediating role of career management behaviours between OSCD and career satisfaction The extended model of SCCT predicts that in addition to a direct relationship between OSCD (goal speci? c environmental resources) and career satisfaction, OSCD may also indirectly impact satisfaction via goal pursuit (career management behaviour s) (Lent and Brown, 2006).The model of proactive behaviours also predicts that the presence of contextual factors, such as organisational support and resources, will facilitate an individual’s proactive career behaviours and career success (Crant, 2000). While there is indirect support for the impact of OSCD on individual career management behaviours (Kossek et al. , 1998; Noe, 1996), empirical evidence for the mediating role of career management behaviours between OSCD and career satisfaction is limited (Nabi, 2003). For example, in two recent studies of university students conducted by the same research team (Lent et al. 2005), one study found support for this mediating relationship, while the second study did not. In the ? rst study of 177 students, signi? cant relationships were found between environmental resources and academic goal progress and between goal progress and domain satisfaction for both the academic and social domain. In the second study of 299 students a st rong predictive relationship was found between goal progress and satisfaction, but not between environmental support and goal progress (Lent et al. , 2005).Nevertheless, based on the predictions of SCCT and the integrated model of proactive behaviour, it is expected that individuals will be more likely to take actions to achieve their career goals and career satisfaction if they have access to organisational (environmental) support and resources to pursue these goals (Crant, 2000; Lent, 2005). This leads to the third hypothesis: H3. Career management behaviours will mediate the relationship between OSCD and career satisfaction. Proactive personality and career satisfaction According to the model of proactive behaviour (Crant, 2000), an individual’s disposition or personality will also in? ence the extent to which they take the initiative to engage in career management behaviours and achieve career satisfaction. Therefore, this suggests that individuals with proactive disposit ions are more likely to engage in career management behaviours and experience greater career satisfaction than individuals with lower proactive tendencies. A recent meta-analysis found that proactive personality was strongly related to career satisfaction with an effect size of 0. 38 found across three studies with over 1,000 participants (Ng et al. 2005). Signi? cant relationships between proactive personality, career management behaviours and career satisfaction were also demonstrated in a longitudinal study, which will be outlined next. A study investigating the career behaviours and strategies of 496 full-time employees found that proactive personality explained additional variance in career satisfaction, after controlling for several demographic, human capital, organisational, motivational and industry variables (Seibert et al. , 1999).Two years later, the researchers found that the relationship between proactive personality and career satisfaction was mediated by innovation, p olitical knowledge and career management behaviours (de? ned as career initiative) (Seibert et al. , 2001a). While the recently extended SCCT model does not refer to proactive personality speci? cally, it does predict that personality and affective traits will impact satisfaction directly as well as via cognitive appraisals of self-ef? cacy and environmental supports (Lent and Brown, 2006).An additional theoretical pathway suggested is that certain personality traits may affect satisfaction through behavioural means: the example given suggests that highly conscientious workers may be more likely to set, pursue and make progress towards personal goals (Lent and Brown, 2006). Similarly, it follows that highly proactive workers may be more likely to engage in career management behaviours to achieve career goals and satisfaction. The similar Support for career development 625 CDI 12,7 predictions of SCCT and the proactive behaviour model, supported by meta-analytic and longitudinal resu lts, lead to the following hypotheses: H4.Proactive personality will be positively related to career satisfaction H5. Career management behaviours will mediate the relationship between proactive personality and career satisfaction. 626 Control variables To more appropriately determine the unique in? uence of OSCD and proactive personality on career satisfaction, the study will also control for human capital variables (organisational tenure and education level), which have been found to be related to career satisfaction (Ng et al. , 2005; Seibert and Kraimer, 2001; Wayne et al. 1999). The study will explore the in? uence that environmental and individual variables (OSCD, proactive personality and career management behaviours) can provide to employee career satisfaction and examine the mechanisms by which these relationships operate. This study therefore builds on recommendations to contribute a more balanced, integrative perspective to the study of careers (Baruch, 2006; Lent and Bro wn, 2006). Method Sample The participants were 90 employees from a range of private and public sector organisations.A questionnaire was completed by 77 public sector employees and 21 postgraduate business students. Eight of the postgraduate students reported that they were currently unemployed, so they were removed from the analysis, leaving a total of 90 respondents. Of the remaining respondents, 64 per cent were female. The majority of respondents were aged between 31 and 50 years (72 per cent), with 17 per cent under 30 years and 11 per cent aged over 51 years. Most of the respondents (53 per cent) were employed with their current organisation less than ? e years, with 14 per cent having organisational tenure of six to ten years and 33 per cent over 11 years. Most of the respondents (93 per cent) were employed full-time, with 56 per cent employed in administrative and professional roles, and 40 per cent in a managerial capacity. Educational level was high, with 86 per cent of res pondents having completed either undergraduate or postgraduate tertiary study. Measures All the study variable scales were measured on a ? ve-point scale which ranged from strongly agree (1) to strongly disagree (5).Scores were reversed such that higher scores re? ected higher standing on the construct measure. All the scores for each of the items were averaged to obtain an overall measure for each of the variables. Organisational support for career development Respondents rated a ten-item organisational career management scale (Sturges et al. , 2002), indicating the extent to which they perceived OSCD. Five of the items were modi? ed slightly to re? ect a more supportive, rather than directive organisational relationship with employees. In a previous study (Sturges et al. 2002), six of the ten items loaded on â€Å"formal† OSCD (e. g. â€Å"I have been given work which has developed my skills for the future†) and four items loaded on â€Å"informal† OSCD (e. g. â€Å"I have been encouraged to obtain a mentor to help my career development†). In the previous longitudinal study, the â€Å"formal† OSCD subscale achieved an internal consistency reliability of 0. 77 at both time 1 and time 2, one year apart and the â€Å"informal† OSCD subscale achieved an internal consistency reliability of 0. 80 at time 1 and 0. 81 at time 2 (Sturges et al. , 2002).Refer to Table I for the internal consistency reliabilities for all the current study variables. Proactive personality Proactive personality was assessed with a ten-item shortened version of Bateman and Crant’s (1993) 17-item Proactive Personality scale. Seibert et al. (1999) presented evidence of the validity and reliability of the shortened scale, with the scale having demonstrated an internal consistency reliability of 0. 85 (Seibert et al. , 2001a). Respondents indicated their level of agreement with each of the statements (e. g. â€Å"I am constantly on the lookout for new ways to improve my life†).Career management behaviours Since the authors’ research did not identify one scale that examined as comprehensive a range of career management behaviours as desired, items from two scales were used. The ? rst scale measured career planning using six items developed by Gould (1979). This scale has demonstrated internal consistency reliability above 0. 7 in previous studies (Gould, 1979; Wayne et al. , 1999). Participants reported the extent to which they had career goals and plans (e. g. â€Å"I have a strategy for achieving my career goals†). Three items were stated in the opposite direction and were reverse scored.The second scale measured career self-management behaviours using 16 items (Sturges et al. , 2002). Respondents indicated the extent to which they engaged in networking (e. g. â€Å"I have arranged to be introduced to people who can in? uence my career†), visibility behaviour (e. g. â€Å"I have made my direc t supervisor aware of my accomplishments†), skills development (e. g. â€Å"I have read work-related publications in my spare time†) and mobility-oriented behaviour (e. g. â€Å"I have made plans to leave this organisation if it cannot offer me a rewarding career†). Internal consistency correlations above 0. were achieved for all of these subscales in a previous study (networking (0. 74), visibility (0. 69-0. 8) and mobility (0. 76-0. 78)), except for skills development (0. 56-0. 63) (Sturges et al. , 2002). Career satisfaction Career satisfaction was measured using the ? ve-item career satisfaction scale, which has demonstrated an internal consistency correlation of 0. 86 (Greenhaus et al. , 1990). Respondents indicated their level of agreement with each of the statements (e. g. â€Å"I am satis? ed with the progress I have made toward meeting my overall career goals†).Control variables Respondents’ demographic and human capital information was col lected with single item questions for gender, age, highest level of education completed, organisational tenure, work type (e. g. technical, professional, managerial) and employment status (full-time, part-time, casual). Support for career development 627 CDI 12,7 628 Variables – – – – 3. 65 3. 31 3. 52 3. 50 – 0. 08 0. 42 0. 22 20. 02 0. 16 20. 08 – 2 0. 28 0. 27 2 0. 08 0. 35 0. 15 – 0. 07 0. 02 2 0. 22 2 0. 17 – – – – 0. 49 0. 77 0. 54 0. 72 Table I. Correlations between variables of interest M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 – 0. 5 2 0. 19 2 0. 18 2 0. 32 2 0. 22 2 0. 17 2 0. 03 (0. 86) 0. 04 0. 55 0. 23 (0. 90) 0. 16 0. 27 (0. 88) 0. 35 (0. 87) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Gender# Age group# Education level# Tenure# Proactive personality OSCD Career management behaviours Career satisfaction Notes: correlations greater than | 0. 28 | are signi? cant at p , 0. 01; those greater than | 0. 21 | are signi? cant at p , 0. 05; internal consistency reliability for variables shown in brackets (); # nominal or ordinal scales used to measure variable, therefore mean and standard deviation not reportProcedure Public sector employees participating in internal and cross-agency career development programs were invited to complete the questionnaire during workshops, while the postgraduate business students were invited to complete the questionnaire during university classes. (The authors approached these organisations and their respective employees/students because it was expected that they would be more interested in the study’s variables of interest and subsequent results, and therefore, be more likely to participate in the study. Respondents were told that the aim of the survey was to research their career attitudes and perceptions about organisational career development. A cover letter provided background information regarding the purpose and nature of the study and emphasised con? dentiality, an onymity and voluntary participation. Participants either returned the questionnaire in an envelope at the end of the session or returned it in a reply-paid envelope addressed to the authors’ university address. To ensure anonymity, respondents were not asked to provide their names or any other identifying information.Participants were encouraged to participate by receiving a small incentive (such as a chocolate bar and/or being eligible to win a movie/meal voucher). The vouchers were awarded at the end of workshops, during which participants were given time to complete the questionnaire. Respondents who returned a completed questionnaire at the end of the workshop received a raf? e ticket. A winning ticket was then drawn from the collection of ticket butts, and the respondent with the matching ticket was given the voucher.These small incentives and the strategy used for approaching participating organisations may have resulted in the relatively high response rate of approxima tely 50 per cent. Results Means, standard deviations and internal reliability for the variables of interest are shown in Table I. An exploratory factor analysis showed that the formal and informal OSCD items loaded on one factor, accounting for 53 per cent of the variance in the factor structure. All the OSCD items were therefore averaged to form a composite OSCD score, with an internal consistency reliability of 0. 90.An exploratory factor analysis of the career management behaviours found that all items (except for the two mobility-oriented items and one networking item) loaded above 0. 30 on the ? rst factor, accounting for 30 per cent of the variance in the factor structure. A composite career management behaviour score was calculated by averaging all the items loading above 0. 30 on the ? rst factor, with an internal consistency reliability of 0. 88. The networking item and two mobility-oriented items were removed from further analyses. All the remaining scales obtained interna l consistency reliability above 0. 5 (refer Table I). The public sector and postgraduate business student samples were analysed to determine differences on demographic variables. The only signi? cant differences were that the university respondents were less likely to be female (x 2 ? 1? ? 7:52, p , 0:01) and tended to be younger (x 2 ? 3? ? 13:86, p , 0:01) than the public sector respondents. Due to there being only minor differences, the two cohorts were combined into one sample. Support for career development 629 CDI 12,7 630 Hypothesis testing H1 to H5 were analysed by conducting hierarchical egression analyses on career satisfaction. The data were checked for missing data and outliers. One multivariate outlier was identi? ed and removed from the analysis. The number of control variables used in the regression analyses was contained to meet the recommended ratio of respondents to predictor variables (Tabachnick and Fidell, 1989). H1 and H2 proposed that OSCD and career managemen t behaviours would both be positively related to career satisfaction. After controlling for education level and tenure, OSCD predicted an additional 8 per cent variance in career satisfaction (? 0:28, p , 0:01), F? 1; 85? ? 7:57. Therefore, H1 was supported. H2 was also supported. Career management behaviours predicted an additional 9 per cent variance in career satisfaction, after controlling for education level and tenure (? ? 0:33, p , 0:01), F? 1; 85? ? 8:97. H3 proposed that career management behaviours would mediate the relationship between OSCD and career satisfaction (refer Table II). The ? rst condition of mediation (as described by Baron and Kenny, 1986) requires that the independent variable, OSCD, relate to the mediating variable, career management behaviours.In the ? rst equation (refer equation 1, Table II), OSCD was not signi? cantly related to career management behaviours (? ? 0:19, p ?. 0:05, ns). H1 represented the second condition, which was met (refer equation 2, Table II), In the third equation, (refer equation 3, Table II), career satisfaction was regressed on the mediating variable (career management behaviours) along with the independent variable (OSCD). The effect of OSCD on career satisfaction remained signi? cant (? ? 0:23, p , 0:05) and career management behaviour was also signi? cantly related to career satisfaction (? 0:28, p , 0:05). For the third condition to be met, the effect of OSCD on career satisfaction would need to decrease signi? cantly. The ? rst and third conditions of mediation were not met, suggesting that career management behaviours do not mediate the relationship between OSCD and career satisfaction. Therefore H3 was not supported. H4 proposed that proactive personality would be positively related to career satisfaction. After entering the control variables (education level and tenure), proactive personality predicted 4 per cent additional variance in career satisfaction (? 0:21, p ? 0:05) F? 1; 85? ? 3:83 (refer equation 2, Table III). Therefore, H4 was supported. Dependent variable First equation CMB Second equation CSat Third equation CSat b b b 0. 31 * * 20. 13 0. 11 * * 0. 19 – 0. 14 * * 0. 04 0. 10 20. 15 0. 05 0. 28 * * – 0. 09 * * 0. 08 * * 0. 10 20. 15 0. 02 0. 23 * 0. 28 * 0. 14 * * 0. 14 * * Variable Step 1 Education level Tenure Adjusted R 2 Step 2 OSCD Career management behaviours Adjusted R 2 DR 2 Table II. Mediating role of career management behaviours between OSCD and career satisfaction Notes: *p , 0. 05; * *p , 0. 01; * * *p , 0. 01 Variable Step 1 Education level Tenure Adjusted R2 Step 2 Proactive personality Career management behaviours Adjusted R2 DR 2 Dependent variable First equation CMB Second equation CSat Third equation CSat b b b 0. 31 * * 20. 13 0. 11 * * 0. 53 * * * – 0. 36 * * * 0. 25 * * * 0. 10 20. 15 0. 02 0. 21^ – 0. 05^ 0. 04^ 0. 10 20. 15 0. 02 0. 06 0. 29 * 0. 09 * 0. 09 * Support for career development 631 Table III. Mediatin g role of career management behaviours between proactive personality and career satisfaction Notes: ^p=0. 05; *p , 0. 05; * *p , 0. 01; * * *p , 0. 001H5 predicted that career management behaviours would mediate between proactive personality and career satisfaction. In the ? rst equation, proactive personality was a signi? cant predictor of career management behaviours (? ? 0:53, p , 0:001) F? 1; 85? ? 34:98 (refer equation 1, Table III), meeting the ? rst condition. H4 represented the second condition of mediation which was also met. Both proactive personality and career management behaviours were entered in the third equation (refer equation 3, Table III). While career management behaviour was positively related to career satisfaction (? ? 0:29, p , 0:05) F? 2; 84? 4:55, proactive personality was no longer statistically signi? cant (? ? 0:06, p . 0:05, ns), meeting the third condition, Moreover, the indirect path linking proactive personality and career satisfaction through career management behaviours was signi? cant (Sobel test, z ? 2:11, p , 0:05). This suggests that career management behaviours fully mediated the relationship between proactive personality and career satisfaction, providing support for H5. Discussion This study explored the contribution that organisations and employees can make to their career satisfaction and the mechanisms by which these relationships occur.This was achieved by testing a subset of the relationships proposed by an extended model of SCCT (Lent and Brown, 2006) and an integrative model of proactive career behaviours (Crant, 2000). The study explored how proactive personality, OSCD and individual career management behaviours relate to career satisfaction. Consistent with previous research (Ng et al. , 2005; Seibert et al. , 2001a), this study found that proactive personality was signi? cantly positively related to career satisfaction. The study also found that career management behaviours mediated the relationship between p roactive personality and career satisfaction.These results support the model of proactive behaviours, which suggests that highly proactive individuals are more likely to achieve greater career satisfaction than less proactively inclined individuals, by engaging in proactive career behaviours (Crant, 2000). The results also support the theoretical proposition by Lent and Brown (2006) that speci? c personality traits (proactive personality) impact satisfaction via behavioural means (career management behaviours). CDI 12,7 632 After controlling for education level and tenure, OSCD explained a moderate 8 per cent variance in career satisfaction.This result supports the premise made by the extended SCCT model that access to goal-relevant environmental resources will be directly related to satisfaction (Lent and Brown, 2006). This ? nding also supports this study’s proposal that organisations can in? uence their employees’ experience of career success by supporting their emp loyees’ career development. Individual career management behaviour (comprising career planning, networking, skills development and visibility) was also positively related to career satisfaction.After controlling for education level and tenure, individual career management behaviour explained 9 per cent additional variance in career satisfaction. This ? nding is consistent with SCCT and the model of proactive career behaviours, since it supports the proposal that individuals taking proactive actions to achieve their career goals (engaging in career management behaviours) are more likely to experience career satisfaction (Crant, 2000; Lent, 2005). The proposal that individual career management behaviours mediated the relationship between OSCD and career satisfaction received no support, due to a non-signi? ant relationship between OSCD and career management behaviours. This ? nding is inconsistent with the extended SCCT model, which predicts that environmental resources may imp act satisfaction indirectly via their impact on goal-directed activities. The relationship between contextual factors, such as OSCD, and individual career management behaviours has received mixed empirical support. For example, Lent et al. (2005) found two different outcomes from their two different studies. The ? rst study of 177 students found a signi? ant relationship between environmental supports and resources and student progress towards their academic goals. The second study of 299 students found no direct relationship between these variables. A possible explanation for this study’s results is that individual difference variables, such as proactive personality, moderate the relationship between OSCD and career management behaviours. Given that individuals with a proactive disposition are relatively unconstrained by situational forces (Crant, 2000) it is likely that highly proactive people will engage in career management behaviours independent of the OSCD they perceive .This study possibly suffered from a restriction of range in this independent variable, since the study’s respondents (employees participating in career development programs and/or further study) are more likely to have highly proactive dispositions, and therefore engage in career management behaviours independent of their perceived OSCD. This explanation is supported somewhat by the relatively high mean score for proactive personality (3. 65 on a ? ve-point scale).Another possible reason for career management behaviours not mediating between OSCD and career satisfaction is that there are additional environmental supports and resources (such as those outside the organisation), individual difference or social cognitive variables impacting individuals’ career management behaviours which were not explored in this study. Theoretical implications This study contributes to the existing literature by exploring how environmental aspects (OSCD) and an individual difference vari able (proactive personality) together impact career management behaviours and career satisfaction.Few studies have simultaneously investigated the impacts of these variables on career satisfaction before, and doing so responds to recommendations to balance both organisational and individual perspectives in theoretical development and facilitate integration of the organisational and vocational psychology perspectives (Baruch, 2006; Lent and Brown, 2006). This study builds on previous research which tested the extended SCCT model with university students (Lent et al. , 2005), by exploring the application of a subset of its proposed relationships with employed workers.This study also incorporated conceptual predictions and empirical ? ndings from the management literature (Seibert et al. , 2001a) to test the applicability of another personality variable, proactive personality, in the extended SCCT model. Previously, positive affect and extraversion have been tested in the SCCT model (L ent et al. , 2005). The ? nding that career management behaviours mediated the relationship between proactive personality and career satisfaction provides support for the extended SCCT model’s prediction that personality traits may affect satisfaction via behavioural means (Lent and Brown, 2006).Together with the signi? cant positive relationship between OSCD and career satisfaction, this study provides support for the application of some of the extended model’s proposed relationships to employed workers. The study also has practical implications, which will be reviewed next. Practical implications While causation can not be proven, this study suggests that employees’ proactive personality, via their career management behaviours, and OSCD are signi? cantly related to employee career satisfaction. This suggests two different strategies for organisations to facilitate employees’ career satisfaction.The ? rst strategy involves recruiting employees with proac tive dispositions. While this may be more dif? cult given the tight labour market experienced currently in Australia, and many other countries, it may be possible in some countries or in some industries. The second strategy involves enhancing employees’ perceptions of OSCD by providing both formal programs and informal support for employee career development. The signi? cant positive relationship between career management behaviours and career satisfaction suggests that individuals bene? personally from engaging in these behaviours. Therefore, this ? nding suggests that OSCD initiatives that promote the individual bene? ts associated with career management behaviours and encourage employees to engage in these behaviours, may experience most success in facilitating employee career satisfaction. Study limitations As with all cross-sectional studies, causality between OSCD and career satisfaction can not be proven. Questionnaires were completed at one point in time by respondent s, so the results are also subject to common method and common source bias.As discussed above, the sample surveyed (employees participating in career development activities) is likely to be more proactively inclined than the general population, which may have restricted the range of study and limit the generalisability of the results. A large proportion of the study respondents were educated to tertiary level and employed full-time, which may also limit the generalisability of the ? ndings, particularly given the increasing participation in part-time and casual employment in Australia. The use of the career satisfaction scale to measure subjective career success may be another limitation of the study.While this standardised scale is used widely and obtains acceptable levels of internal consistency (Greenhaus et al. , 1990), it may be a de? cient measure of the subjective career success construct. The career satisfaction Support for career development 633 CDI 12,7 scale includes item s (such as satisfaction with income and advancement goals) which may not be the most important criteria used by individuals to assess their career success (Heslin, 2005). Future research Future research could be conducted with a greater representation of part-time and casual employees, and with greater variability in individual differences, such as roactive personality. Exploration of the broader relationships proposed by SCCT on a longitudinal basis could build our understanding of the nature of the relationships between individual differences, environmental, social cognitive and behavioural predictors of subjective career success. Future research could also explore the types of career management behaviours that are most valuable for. achieving important career outcomes for employees. Greater understanding of these relationships could lead to the design of interventions that better facilitate employees’ experience of career success.Conclusion This study proposed that organis ations may potentially attract, motivate and retain employees by supporting their employees’ career development. The results indicated that OSCD and employee participation in career management behaviours are positively related to employee career satisfaction. These results suggest that OSCD initiatives promoting the bene? ts associated with career management behaviours and supporting employees to participate in these behaviours may experience the most success in facilitating employee career satisfaction. References Allen, T. D. , Eby, L.T. , Poteet, M. L. , Lentz, E. and Lima, L. (2004), â€Å"Career bene? ts associated with mentoring for proteges: a meta-analysis†, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 89, pp. 127-35. Arthur, M. B. , Khapova, S. N. and Wilderom, C. P. M. (2005), â€Å"Career success in a boundaryless career world†, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 26 No. 2, pp. 177-202. Baron, R. M. and Kenny, D. A. (1986), â€Å"The moderator-mediator v ariable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic and statistical considerations†, Journal of Personality and Soclal Psychology, Vol. 1, pp. 1173-82. Baruch, Y. (2006), â€Å"Career development in organizations and beyond: balancing traditional and contemporary viewpoints†, Human Resource Management Review, Vol. 16, pp. 125-38. Bateman, T. S. and Crant, J. M. (1993), â€Å"The proactive component of organizational behavior†, Journal of Personality and Soclal Psychology, Vol. 14, pp. 103-18. Chiaburu, D. S. , Baker, V. L. and Pitariu, A. H. (2006), â€Å"Beyond being proactive: what (else) matters for career self-management behaviours? †, Career Development International, Vol. 11 No. 7, pp. 619-32. Claes, R. nd Ruiz-Quintamilla, S. A. (1998), â€Å"In? uences of early career experiences, occupational group and national culture on proactive career behaviour†, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 52, pp. 357-78. Crant, J. M. ( 2000), â€Å"Proactive behavior in organizations†, Journal of Management, Vol. 26 No. 3, pp. 435-62. Erdogan, B. , Kraimer, M. L. and Liden, R. C. (2004), â€Å"Work value congruence and intrinsic career success: the compensatory roles of leader-member exchange and perceived organizational support†, Personnel Psychology, Vol. 57 No. 2, pp. 305-32. 634 Gattiker, U. E. nd Larwood, L. (1988), â€Å"Predictors for managers’ career mobility, success, and satisfaction†, Human Relations, Vol. 41 No. 6, pp. 569-91. Gould, S. (1979), â€Å"Characteristics of career planners in upwardly mobile occupations†, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 22, pp. 539-50. Greenhaus, J. H. , Parasuraman, S. J. and Wormley, W. M. (1990), â€Å"Effects of race on organisational experiences, job performance evaluations, and career outcomes†, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 33, pp. 64-86. Hall, D. T. (2002), Careers In and Out of Organisations, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.Hall, D. T. and Chandler, D. E. (2005), â€Å"Psychological success: when the career is a calling†, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 26 No. 2, pp. 155-76. Hall, D. T. and Mirvis, P. H. (1995), â€Å"The new career contract: developing the whole person at midlife and beyond†, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 47, pp. 269-89. Heslin, P. A. (2003), â€Å"Self- and other-referent criteria of career success†, Journal of Career Assessment, Vol. 11 No. 3, pp. 262-86. Heslin, P. A. (2005), â€Å"Conceptualizing and evaluating career success†, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 6 No. 2, pp. 113-36. Kossek, E. E. , Roberts, K. , Fisher, S. and DeMarr, B. (1998), â€Å"Career self-management: a quasi-experimental assessment of the effects of a training intervention†, Personnel Psychology, Vol. 51 No. 4, pp. 935-62. Lent, R. W. (2004), â€Å"Toward a unifying theoretical and practical perspective on well-being and psychosocial adjustmentâ € , Journal of Counseling Psychology, Vol. 51 No. 4, pp. 482-509. Lent, R. W. (2005), â€Å"A social cognitive view of career development and counseling†, in Brown, S. D. E. L. and Lent, R. W. Eds), Career Development and Counseling: Putting Theory and Research to Work, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. , Hoboken, NJ, pp. 101-127). Lent, R. W. and Brown, S. D. (2006), â€Å"Integrating person and situation perspectives on work satisfaction: a social-cognitive view†, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 69, pp. 236-47. Lent, R. W. , Brown, S. D. and Hackett, G. (1994), â€Å"Toward a unifying social cognitive theory of career and academic interest, choice and performance†, Journal of Vocational Behaviour, Vol. 45, pp. 79-122. Lent, R. W. , Singley, D. , Sheu, H. -B. , Gainor, K. A. , Brenner, B.R. and Treistman, D. et al. (2005), â€Å"Social cognitive predictors of domain and life satisfaction: exploring the theoretical precursors of subjective well-being†, Jour nal of Counseling Psychology, Vol. 52 No. 3, pp. 429-42. London, M. (1988), â€Å"Organizational support for employees’ career motivation: a guide to human resource strategies in changing business conditions†, HR: Human Resource Planning, Vol. 11 No. 1, pp. 23-32. Nabi, G. R. (2000), â€Å"Motivational attributes and organizatonal experiences as predictors of career-enhancing strategies†, Career Development International, Vol. No. 2, pp. 91-8. Nabi, G. R. (2003), â€Å"Situational characteristics and subjective career success: the mediating role of career-enhancing strategies†, International Journal of Manpower, Vol. 24 No. 6, pp. 653-71. Ng, T. W. H. , Eby, L. T. , Sorensen, K. L. and Feldman, D. C. (2005), â€Å"Predictors of objective and subjective career success: a meta-analysis†, Personnel Psychology, Vol. 58, pp. 367-408. Noe, R. A. (1996), â€Å"Is career management related to employee development and performance?

ACT Complete Guide

International Students and the SAT/ACT Complete Guide SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Are you an international student aiming to attend college in the United States? Colleges are looking for students with language skills and global competencies more than ever, so you already have several strong assets to draw on in your college applications. One requirement for your applications to most universities is the SAT or ACT. Let's go over the information you need to know about deciding between the SAT and ACT, registering for the tests, and preparing to achieve a high score. First, why are the SAT and ACT important to go to college in the U.S.? Why Are the SAT and ACT Important for College Applications? Almost all four-year colleges and universities require you to take the SAT or ACT, with just a few exceptions. These exams are meant to test all students' knowledge and reasoning skills on an equal playing field, as everyone'scurriculum and learning experiences might differ from school to school. These tests have been used to ensure that you have the critical thinking and reasoning skills you need to do well in college. Putting in the effort to prep and achieve strong scorescan also demonstrate your commitment to studying at university. If your native language is not English, you probably also have to take the TOEFL or IELTS to demonstrate language proficiency. Like the SAT and ACT, these are two equal options as mostcolleges will accept either. While bothoptions are equal, you want to choose the one on which you can perform better. So far, the SAT and TOEFL have been the most popular choices for international students, so you may have heard more about them. In past years, some collegeswaived the TOEFL/IELTS requirement if you got a certain score on the Evidence Based Reading and Writingsection of the SAT or English and Reading section of the ACT. These schools, for example, usedthe following cutoff scores: College VerbalMinimum Score Columbia 700+ on SAT Evidence Based Reading and Writing or 29+ on ACT English or Reading Johns Hopkins 690+ on SAT Evidence Based Reading and Writing or 30+ on both ACT English and Reading University of Michigan 650+ on SAT Evidence Based Reading and Writingor 27+ on both ACT English and Reading Cornell University 35+ on SAT Reading scaled score You can learn more about each college's policy on its website or by calling its admissions office directly. Since most colleges accept either the SAT or ACT, which option is better for international students? How Are the SAT and ACT Different? Just like with students who are U.S. citizens, the "better" test all depends on your educational background, academic strengths, and personal interests.The SAT and the ACT are viewed equally by colleges, so you should choose based on where you can get the higher score. Typically, international students are able to score higher on math sections of standardized exams than on verbal sections, both because of the quality of math education in various countries and the extra language challenges many international students must overcome in reading and writing sections.While the SAT has generally been more popular than the ACT for international students, it might not be the better option for you if you're strong inmath and science. The ACT, unlike the SAT, has a science section, plus it tests more advanced math concepts. Let's break down some of the important information you should know about each test. Ultimately, the best way to choose is to try some sample questions and practice tests and see which one works better for you. What to Know About theSAT The SAT is much more popular internationally, so you might already have more knowledge about the test or resources to study for it. The SAT hasfour sections: one Reading, one Writing, one Math (no calculator), and one Math (with calculator). It also features an optional fifth section, a 50-minute essay. Some colleges will want you to take the SAT with essay; others will leave the choice up to you. Let's consider some features about the SAT that would appeal to international students, followed by some cons of this college admissions test. Pros of the SAT for International Students The SAT might be more appealing to international students than the ACT for a couple of reasons. One is that the verbal sections now count for half the exam score, rather than 2/3 of the total score. For students whose first language is not English, this decrease in emphasis on the Reading and Writing could be a welcome feature. Second, the SAT no longer features obscure vocabulary words. These tough words were challenging for native and non-native English speakers alike, so the elimination of "sentence completion" questions may make the SAT easier for international students. Now, one challenge of the SAT is to glean the meaning of more common words that are being used in unusual ways. Along similar lines, SAT questions now feature straightforward wording, making them easier to understand. All three sections, Reading, Writing, and Math, also feature graphs, charts, and tables. If you're strong at interpreting data, then this feature may appeal to you. Cons of the SATfor International Students There may be a few cons to the SAT for international students. One con is that some selective schools require that you take both the SAT and one or twoSAT Subject Tests. Most of these same schools waive the Subject Test requirement if you take the ACT. So if you chose the ACT, you'd only have to take that one test, whereas if you chose the SAT, you might have to take three separate tests to apply. Another con is the SAT's emphasis onreading comprehension in all its sections. The Reading passages feature evidence-based questions, meaning you'll have to back up your answers with evidence from the text. All of the questions in the Writing and Language section feature longer passages, so you'll need a strong grasp on structure and syntax.Even the math questions feature word problems with what College Board refers to as "real world scenarios." These scenarios may not be a part of everyone's real world experience, and they might pose a challenge for students more accustomed to figures and equations, rather than wordiness, in their math problems. The best way to get a sense of how SAT questions work is to take sample practice tests, as I'll discuss below. First though, let's consider the structure of the ACT, along with its pros and cons for international students applying to college in the U.S. There's no bad or good test for your college applications. Rather, you should choose the one that helps youget the higher score! What to Know About theACT While the ACT was more of a domestic U.S.-based test for a long time, it isactually becoming more popular with international students. As mentioned above, it's not all that different from the SAT, except for the fact thatit features a Science section along with its English, Reading, Math, and optional essay sections. So what are some of the pros and cons of the ACT for international students? Pros of the ACT for International Students While the SAT is only featuring more accessiblequestion types this year, the ACT has always been known for its straightforward wording. Its questions don't seem set out to trick you; instead, they're relatively clear. This characteristic is useful for international students, who won'thave to do double the work to figure out what a question is even asking for in the first place. Another potentially attractive feature of the ACT is its Science section. ACT Science doesn't require you to have a ton of specific scientific knowledge; instead, it's more concerned with testing your scientific skills, like analyzing data and evaluating a hypothesis. Some international studentsfind they do better on this section than Reading and English, so its inclusion makes it a compelling reason to choose the ACT over the SAT. Another feature of the ACT, which may be a pro or a con depending on your math level, is its incorporation of higher level math concepts. Its math questions feature more geometry and trigonometry than the SAT, and you can use a calculator on all of them.If you're strong in math and science and/or considering going into a STEM field, you might demonstrate your skills and interests best by taking the ACT. Finally, some students have said that the ACT is more in line with IB curriculum. So if you're in an IB school, you might look over the test to see if it aligns well with what you've learned in school. Cons of the ACTfor International Students As mentioned above, the ACT features more advanced math, as well as a science section. If you're less strong in these areas, then they may be a reason not to take the ACT. Depending on your academic preparation and skills, these sections may be a major determining factor in whether you can do better on the SAT or the ACT. Another potential con is simply its lack of popularity internationally. You may have grown up learning a lot more about the SAT, and you might be able to form study groups with friends who are taking the SAT. If few people around you are taking the ACT, then you might not have the same study and support network that you would for the SAT. Like the SAT, the ACT has a large emphasis on reading comprehension and evaluating structure and syntax of passages. The verbal section is worth half your score, so you'll want to try both SAT and ACT verbal sections (Reading and Writing for the SAT, Reading and English for the ACT)to see which one is more appealing to you. Trying out practice questions will be very useful in helping you decide between the SAT and ACT. Read on to learn where you can find these practice questions andhow to register for an examonce you make your choice. How Can You Decide Between the SAT and ACT? As I mentioned above, the best way to decide whether you should take the SAT or the ACT (or the TOEFL or IELTS, for that matter) is to learn all about the content and format of the tests and then take a practice test to see which one you can do better on. You want your test score to strengthen your overall application, so get familiar with the content, format, and question types of the tests and then make your best choice. Once you've decided, commit yourself to prepping for that test, and don't worry about the other one! To fully commit, you need to register for the test. Want to learn more about the SAT but tired of reading blog articles? Then you'll love our free, SAT prep livestreams. Designed and led by PrepScholar SAT experts, these live video events are a great resource for students and parents looking to learn more about the SAT and SAT prep. Click on the button below to register for one of our livestreams today! How Do You Register for the SAT or ACT? Both tests have an online registration process and charge a fee. You'll have to find your testing center, choose your test date, and then enter your personal and payment information. You can check out the exam websites to find testing dates and more information. Register for the SAT You'll register to take the SAT at the College Board website. You want to start early, like in sophomore or junior year, to give yourself time to take it again if you want to improve your score.Youalso should register at least a month before your desired exam date so you don't have to pay any additional late registration fees. There might be some additional requirements if you're from Cameroon, Egypt, Ghana, Hong Kong, India, Korea, Macau, Nepal, Nigeria, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. For more information, check out our complete step-by-step guide to SAT registration. Register for the ACT If you choose to take the ACT, then you'll register through ACT, Inc.You can register and learn about your country's ACT test dates on the ACT website. Test dates are generally in September, October, December, April, and June. If there's no testing center nearby, you might be able to arrange special testing for yourself. Finally, make sure you're familiar what to bring and what to leave home on test day and have a sense of how many times you plan to take the ACT. For more information, check out our step-by-step guide to ACT registration. As you can imagine, all of this prepping and planning requires a significant amount of time. Since the college process starts at least a year before you actually send your applications, what should your timeline for test prep be? When Should You Begin Preparing for the SAT or ACT? When do you need to register for the SAT/ACT, and when should you start studying for the exam? In this section, we go over all the important steps to take when you prepare for the SAT or ACT, as well as when you need to take them. Many studentsstart preppinga year or more in advance, and some take the SAT or ACT early in high school to get testing experience. You want to give yourselfat least six months to prep intensively, but more is ideal, especially if you're a non-native English speaker and have to put in extra study time to improve your language skills. You need to sign up for the SAT or ACT at least a month before your actual testing date. You also need about three to four weeks for your test to be scored and the score reports sent to colleges, so you want to take it ahead of your deadlines.That means you should know exactly what colleges you're applying to by that time, so you can list them as score recipients when you register for the tests. This means that the colleges you indicate will receive your SAT or ACT score reports. Your entire high school experience is part of your college application - the classes you take, the clubs and sports you join, and the work and volunteer experience you have. You also will likely include teacher recommendations. So apart from the SAT and ACT, your college preparation is something that you can work on throughout all four years of high school. How Can You Study for the SAT or ACT? Test prep is very important to do well on these tests, as they probably don't resemble tests you normally take in school. Prep will both reinforce the material and get you familiar with how the questions are worded and how to manage your time. Strategy plays a big role in how well you do, so learning strategies and applying them as your practice is also key for the SAT and ACT. You can prep online with practice questions at College Board, the ACT, Khan Academy, or other sites, or through PrepScholar's customizable online prep programs. You can also purchase SAT and ACT prepbooks and get full-length practice tests, along with detailed explanations, content review, and key strategies. Coming up with a study schedule and setting target scores is the best way to stay on track, overcome your weaknesses, and get ready for the SAT/ACT. How Can Online Prep Help International Students? PrepScholar's online prep is a great tool for international students who want to succeed on the SAT/ACT and get into their top choice universities. Because it's online and can be accessed anywhere with internet, it's extremely convenient for students all over the world. PrepScholar has high-quality practice questions and tracks your progress, letting you know what content you've mastered and what concepts you still need to work on. You can also choose to get tutoring as part of your online program. While some prep books might cater to American students and assume you're more familiar with the tests than you are, yourtutor will answer any questions you have, as well as motivate you and help keep you accountable to your goals. There are lots of resources to help you master the SAT/ACT and achieve your post-high school goals. As long as you do your research, set aside time to prepare, andask for help when you can, you'll get into a school that's the best fit for you. What's Next? Taking the TOEFL?Get all the info you need to succeed on the test, including sample questions and strategy guides, at our TOEFL blog. Besides the SAT/ACT, what other key components are part of your college application? Read all about how to build a versatile college application. Are you worriedabout the Reading section? This article tells you exactly how to read the passages to maximize your understanding and not waste time. How is the SAT scored? What about the ACT? Understanding the scoring process will help you determine exactly how well you need to do in each section to achieve your target scores. Want to improve your SAT score by 160points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Marx and Weber1 essays

Marx and Weber1 essays Both Carl Marx and Max Weber wrote extensively on capitalism, its origins, and its future. Although, they agreed on a few very small points, for the main part, they strongly disagreed. Only through the analysis of their main differences in the two ideologies can a stronger and broader understanding of capitalism be reached. Marx believed strongly in what he called dialectical materialism, that is, that everything is material and that change takes place through the struggle between classes. He believed that men make their own history and transform their natural habitat to fit their changing needs. Men begin to distinguish themselves from animals as soon as they begin to produce their means of subsistence. . . In producing their means of subsistence men indirectly produce their actually material life. Throughout history men transform nature to make it better serve their own purposes. According to Marx, all societies go through five stages of history and capitalism is simply a necessary stage between feudalism and the final step of communism. The way in which men create their social organization is based on modes of production. Changes within these societies occur because as the mode of production changes, it no longer fits the present social organization (p. 157). Therefore, a new class and hence a new form of society emerges. During Feudalism merchants were inferior. Nevertheless, as cities grew the number of merchants grew as well. With their increase in number came an increase in economic power. When the state was unwilling to change to their needs, they formed a revolution resulting in capitalism. Weber has a different perspective on why and how capitalism came about. Rather than just focusing on how capitalism came about, he focuses on finding an answer to the question of why capitalism happened where and when it did. When he looked for differences in the capitalist cultures and non-capitalist c...